BIOMASS

Biomass refers to living and recently dead biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production. The innovating technology eliminates moisture from the Biomass through a process of electromagnetic radiation. This process reduces the moisture contents to 6% and increases the calorific power through thermo-rectification. With this revolutionary process optimizes the calorific power of the Biomass and at the same time decreases the hydroscopic tendency of the wood.  On thermo-rectifying the biomass by electromagnetic radiation, our system also eliminates up to 35% of the natural toxic elements of the Biomass. On thermo-rectifying the biomass by electromagnetic radiation, our system also eliminates up to 35% of the natural toxic elements of the Biomass.

Biomass is any plant and plant- derived material obtained from photosynthetic reaction of carbon dioxide with water vapor. Using biomass in the context of energy source, biomass can also include woody plants, residues from agriculture or forestry, and the organic component of municipal and industrial wastes. Biomass qualifies as a renewable source of energy as long as it is used at a rate to or less than the rate of production.

 Brazil. The potential energy that could be produced from solid wastes in Brazil tops 50 TWh. Equivalent to some 17% of the nation's total power consumption at costs that are competitive with more traditional options, this would also reduce greenhouse gases emissions. Moreover, managing wastes for energy generation purposes could well open up thousands of jobs for unskilled workers. Related to power generation and conservation, energy use requires discussions on the feasibility of each energy supply option, and comparison between alternatives available on the market. Power conservation is compared to projects implemented by the Federal Government, while power generation is rated against thermo-power plants fired by natural gas running on a combined cycle system. Although the operating costs of selective garbage collection for energy generation are higher than current levels, the net operating revenues of this scheme reach some US$ 4 billion/year.

This underpins the feasibility of garbage management being underwritten by energy uses and avoided environmental costs. The suggested optimization of the technical, economic, social and environmental sustainability of the expansion of Brazil's power sector consists of compatibilizing the use of fossil and renewable fuels, which is particularly relevant for hybrid thermo-power plants with null account on greenhouse gases emissions.  

These industrial plantations will impact the global carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and water cycles in complex ways. The purpose of this paper is to use thermodynamics to quantify a few of the many global problems created by industrial forestry and agriculture. It is assumed that a typical tree biomass-for-energy plantation is combined with an efficient local pelleting facility to produce wood pellets for overseas export. The highest biomass-to-energy conversion efficiency is afforded by an efficient electrical power plant, followed by a combination of the Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel burned in a 35%-efficient car, plus electricity.

Wood pellet conversion to ethanol fuel is always the worst option. Brazil’s total forest area diminished by 22 million hectares over the decade, while Indonesia’s forest area declined by 13 million hectares. In terms of genera composition, Pinus (20%) and Eucalyptus (10%) remain dominant genera worldwide, although overall diversity of planted species increased.

The particular plant used is usually not very important to the end products but it does affect the processing of the raw material. Production of biomass is a growing industry as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing.

Although fossil fuels have their origin in ancient biomass, they are not considered biomass by the generally accepted definition because they contain carbon that has been "out" of the carbon cycle for a very long time. Their combustion therefore disturbs the carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere.

Plastics from biomass, like some recently developed to dissolve in seawater, are made the same way as petroleum-based plastics, are actually cheaper to manufacture and meet or exceed most performance standards. But they lack the same water resistance or longevity as conventional plastics. Biomass is a general term for material derived from growing plants or from animal manure. Bioenergy refers to the technical systems through which biomass is produced or collected converted and used as an energy source. A wide variety of conversion routes can be distinguished that produce a variety of  energy carriers either in a solid, liquid or gaseous form.

Biomass is a renewable energy source because the energy it contains comes from the sun. Through the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants captures the sun's energy by converting carbon dioxide from the air and water from the ground into carbohydrates, complex compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When these carbohydrates are burned, they turn back into carbon dioxide and water and release the sun's energy they contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainable—with only as much used as is grown—the battery will last indefinitely.

From the time of Prometheus to the present, the most common way to capture the energy from biomass was to burn it, to make heat, steam, and electricity. But advances in recent years have shown that there are more efficient and cleaner ways to use biomass. It can be converted into liquid fuels, for example, or cooked in a process called "gasification" to produce combustible gases. And certain crops such as switchgrass and willow trees are especially suited as "energy crops," plants grown specifically for energy generation.

There are many types of plants in the world, and many ways they can be used for energy production. In general there are two approaches: growing plants specifically for energy use, and using the residues from plants that are used for other things. The best approaches vary from region to region according to climate, soils, geography, population, and so on.

At the same time, if biomass systems are managed properly, bioenergy will contribute to meet the requirement of reducing carbon emissions. Biomass generally refers to the organic matter deriving from plants and that is generated through the photosynthesis. Biomass not only provides food but also construction materials, fibers, medicines and energy.  In particular, biomass can be referred to as solar energy stored in the chemical bonds of the organic material.

After plants have been used for other purposes, the leftover wastes can be used for energy. The forestry, agricultural, and manufacturing industries generate plant and animal wastes in large quantities. City waste, in the form of garbage and sewage, is also a source for biomass energy.

Forestry wastes are the largest source of heat and electricity now, since lumber, pulp, and paper mills use them to power their factories. One large source of wood waste is tree tops and branches normally left behind in the forest after timber-harvesting operations. Some of these must be left behind to recycle necessary nutrients to the forest and to provide habitat for birds and mammals, but some could be collected for energy production. Other sources of wood waste are sawdust and bark from sawmills, shavings produced during the manufacture of furniture, and organic sludge (or "liquor") from pulp and paper mills.

Agriculture. As with the forestry industry, most crop residues are left in the field. Some should be left there to maintain cover against erosion and to recycle nutrients, but some could be collected for fuel. Animal farms produce many "wet wastes" in the form of manure.

Cities. People generate biomass wastes in many forms, including "urban wood waste" (such as shipping pallets and leftover construction wood), the biodegradable portion of garbage (paper, food, leather, yard waste, etc.) and the gas given off by landfills when waste decomposes.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and water absorbed by the plants roots are combined in the photosynthetic process tproduce carbohydrates that form the biomass. The solar energy that drives photosynthesis is stored in the chemical bonds of the biomass structural components. During biomass combustion, oxygen from the atmosphere combines with the carbon in biomass to produce CO2 and water. The process is therefore cyclic because the carbon dioxide is then available to produce new biomass. This is also the reason why bio-energy is potentially considered as carbon-neutral, although some CO2 emissions occur due to the use of fossil fuels during the production and transport of biofuels.

 The figure below shows the global carbon reservoirs in gigatonnes of carbon (1GtC = 1012 kg) and the annual fluxes and accumulation rates in GtC/year, calculated over the period 1990 to 1999. The values shown are approximate and considerable uncertainties exist as to some of the flow values.

The most important property of biomass feedstocks with regard to combustion – and to the other thermo-chemical processes - is the moisture content, which influences the energy content of the fuel. The figure below shows the evolution of the lower heating value (LHV, in MJ/kg) of wood as a function of the moisture content. Biomass which is not simply burned as fuel may be processed in other ways. Low tech processes include:

Composting (to make soil conditioners and fertilisers). Composting is the aerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic matter, producing compost. The decomposition is performed primarily by facultative and obligate aerobic bacteria, yeasts and fungi, helped in the cooler initial and ending phases by a number of larger organisms, such as ils, and other families representing ants, nematodes and oligochaete worms. Composting can be divided into home composting and industrial composting. Essentially the same biological processes are involved in both scales of composting, however techniques and different factors must be taken into account. Composting recycles or "downcycles" organic household and yard waste and manures into an extremely useful humus-like, soil end-product called compost.

Ultimately this permits the return of needed organic matter and nutrients into the foodchain. Composting is practiced under virtual government mandate in many western countries, as it can reduce significantly the amount of "green" waste going into burgeoning landfills. Composting is widely believed to speed up the natural process of decomposition appreciably as a result of the raised temperatures that often accompany it.

The elevated heat results from exothermic processes, and the heat in turn reduces the generational time of microorganisms and thereby speeds the energy and nutrient exchanges taking place. It is a very popular misnomer that composting is a "controlled" process; if the right environmental circumstances are present the process virtually runs itself. Hence a popular expression, "compost happens".

Anaerobic digestion (decaying biomass to produce methane gas and sludge as a fertiliser) Anaerobic digestion is a process in which microorganisms break down biodegradable material in the absence of oxygen. The process is widely used to treat wastewater sludges and organic wastes because it provides volume and mass reduction of the input material.

As part of an integrated waste management system, anaerobic digestion reduces the emission of landfill gas into the atmosphere.

Anaerobic digestion is a renewable energy source because the process produces a methane and carbon dioxide rich biogas suitable for energy production helping replace fossil fuels. Also, the nutrient-rich solids left after digestion can be used as fertiliser. The digestion process begins with bacterial hydrolysis of the input materials in order to break down insoluble organic polymers such as carbohydrates and make them available for other bacteria.

Fermentation and distillation (both produce ethyl alcohol). A number of noncombustion methods are available for converting biomass to energy. These processes convert raw biomass into a variety of gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels that can then be used directly in a power plant for energy generation.

The carbohydrates in biomass, which are comprised of oxygen, carbon, and hydrogen, can be broken down into a variety of chemicals, some of which are useful fuels. This conversion can be done in three ways:

Thermochemical. When plant matter is heated but not burned, it breaks down into various gases, liquids, and solids. These products can then be further processed and refined into useful fuels such as methane and alcohol. Biomass gasifiers capture methane released from the plants and burn it in a gas turbine to produce electricity. Another approach is to take these fuels and run them through fuel cells, converting the hydrogen-rich fuels into electricity and water, with few or no emissions.

Biochemical.  Bacteria, yeasts, and enzymes also break down carbohydrates. Fermentation, the process used to make wine, changes biomass liquids into alcohol, a combustible fuel.

A similar process is used to turn corn into grain alcohol or ethanol, which is mixed with gasoline to make gasohol. Also, when bacteria break down biomass, methane and carbon dioxide are produced. This methane can be captured, in sewage treatment plants and landfills, for example, and burned for heat and power.

Chemical. Biomass oils, like soybean and canola oil, can be chemically converted into a liquid fuel similar to diesel fuel, and into gasoline additives. Cooking oil from restaurants, for example, has been used as a source to make "biodiesel" for trucks. (A better way to produce biodiesel is to use algae as a source of oils.)

More high-tech processes are

Pyrolysis. Heating organic wastes in the absence of air to produce gas and char. Thermo-chemical processes do not necessarily produce useful energy directly. Instead, they use controlled conditions of temperature and oxygen level to convert the original bioenergy feedstock into more convenient energy carriers such as producer gas, oil or methanol. Compared to the original biomass, these energy carriers either have higher energy densities – and lower transport costs – or more predictable and convenient combustion characteristics, allowing them to be used in internal combustion engines and gas turbines.

Fast pyrolysis of biomass feedstocks is required to achieve high yields of liquids. It is characterized by rapid heating of the biomass particles and a short residence time of product vapors (0.5 to 2 s).

Rapid heating means that the biomass must be ground into fine particles and that the insulating char layer that forms at the surface of the reacting particles must be continuously removed. Since pyrolysis is slightly endothermic, various methods have been proposed to provide heat to the reacting biomass particles:

Partial combustion of the biomass products through air injection. This results in poor-quality products.  Direct heat transfer with a hot gas, ideally product gas that is reheated and recycled. The problem is to provide enough heat with reasonable gas flow-rates.  Indirect heat transfer with exchange surfaces (wall, tubes). It is difficult to achieve good heat transfer on both sides of the heat exchange surface.  Direct heat transfer with circulating solids: Solids transfer heat between a burner and a pyrolysis reactor. This is an effective but complex technology. 

The following technologies have been proposed for biomass pyrolysis: Fixed beds were used for the traditional production of charcoal. Poor, slow heat transfer resulted in very low liquid yields.  Augers: This technology is adapted from a Lurgi process for coal gasification. Hot sand and biomass particles are fed at one end of a screw. The screw mixes the sand and biomass and conveys them along. It provides a good control of the biomass residence time. It does not dilute the pyrolysis products with a carrier or fluidizing gas. However, sand must be reheated in a separate vessel, and mechanical reliability is a concern. There is no large-scale commercial implementation.  Ablative processes: Biomass particles are moved at high speed against a hot metal surface. Ablation of any char forming at the particles surface maintains a high rate of heat transfer. This can be achieved by using a metal surface spinning at high speed within a bed of biomass particles, which may present mechanical reliability problems but prevents any dilution of the products. As an alternative, the particles may be suspended in a carrier gas and introduced at high speed through a cyclone whose wall is heated; the products are diluted with the carrier gas. A problem shared with all ablative processes is that scale-up is made difficult since the ratio of the wall surface to the reactor volume decreases as the reactor size is increased.

There is no large-scale commercial implementation. Rotating cone: Pre-heated hot sand and biomass particles are introduced into a rotating cone. Due to the rotation of the cone, the mixture of sand and biomass is transported across the cone surface by centrifugal force. Like other shallow transported-bed reactors relatively fine particles are required to obtain a good liquid yield. There is no large scale commercial implementation. 

Fluidized beds: Biomass particles are introduced into a bed of hot sand fluidized by a gas, which is usually a recirculated product gas. High heat transfer rates from fluidized sand result in rapid heating of biomass particles. There is some ablation by attrition with the sand particles, but it is not as effective as in the ablative processes. Heat is usually provided by heat exchanger tubes through which hot combustion gas flows. There is some dilution of the products, which makes it more difficult to condense and then remove the bio-oil mist from the gas exiting the condensers.

This process can not be easily scaled up, it is not yet applied commercially .See Brigdwater: There are technical and economic challenges. Technical challenges lie in scaling up the endothermic pyrolysis reactor, particularly concerning heat transfer, and in improving the quality and consistency of the bio-oil.

Circulating fluidized beds: Biomass particles are introduced into a circulating fluidized bed of hot sand. Gas, sand and biomass particles move together, with the transport gas usually being a recirculated product gas, although it may also be a combustion gas. High heat transfer rates from sand ensure rapid heating of biomass particles and ablation is stronger than with regular fluidized beds. A fast separator separates the product gases and vapors from the sand and char particles. The sand particles are reheated in fluidized burner vessel and recycled to the reactor. Although this process can be easily scaled up, it is rather complex and the products are much diluted, which greatly complicates the recovery of the liquid products.

Hydrogasification (produces methane and ethane). Methane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula CH4. It is the simplest alkane, and the principal component of natural gas. Methane's relative abundance and clean burning process makes it a very attractive fuel. However, because it is a gas (at normal temperature and pressure; see STP), methane is difficult to transport from its source. Ethane is a chemical compound with chemical formula C2H6. It is the only two-carbon alkane, that is, an aliphatic hydrocarbon. At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas. Ethane is isolated on an industrial scale from natural gas, and as a byproduct of petroleum refining. Its chief use is as petrochemical feedstock for ethylene production.

Hydrogenation (converts biomass to oil using carbon monoxide and steam under high pressures and temperatures) Hydrogenation is a class of chemical reactions which result in an addition of hydrogen (H2) usually to unsaturated organic compounds. Typical substrates include alkenes, alkynes, ketones, nitriles, and imines. Most hydrogenations involve the direct addition of diatomic hydrogen (H2) but some involve the alternative sources of hydrogen, not H2: these processes are called transfer hydrogenations. The reverse reaction, removal of hydrogen, is called dehydrogenation.

A reaction involving hydrogen and cleavage of a carbon-oxygen bond or carbon-nitrogen bond is called Hydrogenolysis. Hydrogenation differs from protonation or hydride addition (e.g. use of sodium borohydride): in hydrogenation, the products have the same charge as the reactants. The classical example of a hydrogenation is the addition of hydrogen on unsaturated bonds between carbon atoms, converting alkenes to alkanes. A simple example is the hydrogenation of maleic acid to succinic acid depicted on the right. Numerous important applications are found in the petrochemical, pharmaceutical and food industries.

Destructive distillation (produces methyl alcohol from high cellulose organic wastes) is the process of pyrolysis conducted in a distillation apparatus to allow the volatile products to be collected. The process led to the discovery of many chemical compounds before such compounds could be prepared synthetically.

A historically significant example of destructive distillation is tar making. Pinewood slices, which are rich in terpenes, are heated in an airless container causing the material to decompose. The by-products are turpentine and charcoal. This process is still used in Scandinavia for tar-making. Coal tar pitch volatiles (CTPV) are the result of destructive distillation of bituminous coal. These CTPVs often contain polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNA's), which sublime readily and are carcinogenic.

Acid hydrolysis (treatment of wood wastes to produce sugars, which can be distilled). Burning biomass, or the fuel products produced from it, may be used for heat or electricity production. Other uses of biomass, besides fuel and compost include: Building materials; Biodegradable plastics and paper (using cellulose fibres). In a context of increased fossil fuel scarcity and with environmental questions being taken more into consideration, ocean energies are certain of a future in the European and worldwide energy scene. These energies have to be considered in the plural form because the sector covers the energy exploitation of all energy flows specifically supplied by the seas and oceans: waves, tidal currents, ocean currents, osmotic pressure (the differential in salinity of marine currents that can create a flow and which, in turn, can be used to produce electricity) and thermal gradients.

Biomass energy brings numerous environmental benefits—reducing air and water pollution, increasing soil quality and reducing erosion, and improving wildlife habitat. Biomass reduces air pollution by being a part of the carbon cycle (see the box below), reducing carbon dioxide emissions by 90 percent compared with fossil fuels. Sulfur dioxide and other pollutants are also reduced substantially.

Water pollution is reduced because fewer fertilizers and pesticides are used to grow energy crops, and erosion is reduced. Moreover, agricultural researchers in Iowa have discovered that by planting grasses or poplar trees in buffers along waterways, runoff from corn fields is captured, making streams cleaner. In contrast to high-yield food crops that pull nutrients from the soil, energy crops actually improve soil quality.

Prairie grasses, with their deep roots, build up topsoil, putting nitrogen and other nutrients into the ground. Since they are replanted only every 10 years, there is minimal plowing that causes soil to erode.

Finally, biomass crops can create better wildlife habitat than food crops. Since they are native plants, they attract a greater variety of birds and small mammals. They improve the habitat for fish by increasing water quality in nearby streams and ponds. And since they have a wider window of time to be harvested, energy crop harvests can be timed to avoid critical nesting or breeding seasons.

All of these benefits are described in comparison with food crops such as corn, wheat, and soybeans. Compared to undisturbed natural habitat, energy crops are not as good. But the strength of biomass is that it is much closer to the natural world than our modern industrial agriculture. The harvest of prairie grasses is not so different than the fires that periodically swept across the plains. Plantations of poplar and maple trees may not be the same as varied forests, but are certainly closer than pesticide-laden monocrops. Nonetheless, the environmental benefits of biomass hinge on whether energy crops are managed with sustainable agricultural practices. Just like food crops, they can be mishandled, with productivity increased by greater chemical inputs. If biomass energy turns out to have unforeseen environmental effects, we must be willing to alter our methods to reduce these effects.

Overview

Organic Material Largest U.S. Source of Renewable Energy - In the United States, biomass has surpassed hydroelectric power as the largest domestic source of renewable energy; supplies more than 3 percent of total U.S. energy consumption. 

Growth in Biomass Could Put U.S. on Road to Energy Independence - One billion dry tons of corncobs, cornstalks, switchgrass and other types of biomass – any organic matter that is available on a renewable or recurring basis – would displace 30 percent of the nation’s petroleum consumption for transportation. 

In Renewable Energy Portfolios, Biomass is #1, US Govt Confirms - Green Energy Resources (nasdaq otc.GRGR.pk) citing the US Energy Information Agency, (EIA) confirms biomass is the number one renewable energy in the world. Wood biomass comprises 48% of all current renewable...

What is the best biomass fuel source? (PDF) - Canadian report analyzes many biomass options and shows which are better for converting into fuels and diesel substitutes.

Biomass use isn't new, but it is the future - Proponents say it is sustainable and CO₂ reducing. [Not mentioned in the story: techniques exist that convert biomass to energy with no CO₂ emissions at all.]

Promotion

Companies

Ontario Plant Converts Forest Biomass to Bio-oil - Transportable bio-refinery plant will convert unused forest waste into a bio-oil that can be used as fuel to provide heat and electricity, and to make byproducts such as plastics and glues.

Biomass Plant to Convert Rice Straw to Ethanol - Colusa Biomass Energy, a biomass-to-ethanol company, has engaged technical assistance consultants for a production plant in the Sacramento Valley that will convert rice straw to chemical products and ethanol.

P-Fuel -- Physicist patents garbage-to-gas substitute - Process extracts fuel from oat hulls, corn cobs, scrap paper, and any other kind of biomass you'd care to name, at estimated price of $1.80/gallon. 

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